Angola History Timeline

November 5, 2024

Geography

Early History and Pre-Colonial Societies

Ancient Inhabitants and Early Civilizations

  • Khoisan Peoples: The earliest inhabitants of Angola were the Khoisan, hunter-gatherers known for their unique language and customs, who lived in the region for thousands of years before the arrival of Bantu-speaking peoples.
  • Bantu Migration (circa 1000 BCE): Bantu-speaking groups began migrating from Central Africa, bringing agriculture, ironworking, and complex social structures, transforming the region’s demographics and culture.

Rise of Regional Kingdoms

  • Kingdom of Kongo (circa 14th Century): In northern Angola, the Kongo Kingdom emerged as a dominant regional power, encompassing parts of modern-day Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Republic of Congo.
    • Organized Governance: The kingdom had a centralized system with the king, or “Manikongo,” ruling over a network of provinces.
    • European Contact (1483): Portuguese explorers arrived, initiating trade with the Kongo and introducing Christianity and European goods.
  • Kingdom of Ndongo (15th – 17th Century): South of Kongo, the Ndongo kingdom, led by rulers known as “Ngola” (the title from which Angola derives its name), grew into a formidable power.
    • Economic Prosperity: The Ndongo kingdom prospered from trade and agriculture, engaging in commerce with both Kongo and Portuguese traders.
    • Queen Nzinga’s Resistance (1624 – 1663): Queen Nzinga led Ndongo and neighboring Matamba against Portuguese encroachment, becoming a symbol of resistance and diplomacy in the region.

Portuguese Colonial Expansion (16th – 19th Century)

Early Portuguese Settlements

  • Founding of Luanda (1575): The Portuguese established the city of Luanda as a trading post, which became a central hub for the transatlantic slave trade.
  • Slave Trade in Angola: Angola became one of the largest sources of enslaved Africans sent to the Americas, with millions forcibly exported, particularly to Brazil.
    • Economic Impact: The slave trade deeply affected Angola’s population and social structure, leading to depopulation and dependency on the slave-based economy.
    • Resistance to Enslavement: Local kingdoms and communities often resisted Portuguese raids and slave raids, leading to conflicts and rebellions.

Conflicts with Local Kingdoms

  • Wars with Ndongo and Kongo: Portuguese forces clashed with the Ndongo and Kongo kingdoms, leading to fluctuating alliances and hostilities.
  • Decline of Local Powers: By the late 17th century, the Kingdom of Kongo and Ndongo weakened due to internal conflicts, Portuguese attacks, and the depletion of populations from the slave trade.

Expansion of Portuguese Control

  • Inland Expeditions (18th – 19th Century): The Portuguese began expanding from coastal regions into Angola’s interior, searching for resources such as ivory, minerals, and labor.
  • Colonial Settlements and Forts: Military forts and missions were established to secure Portuguese influence, though full control over Angola’s interior was limited due to resistance from local communities.

Colonial Rule and the “Pacification” Campaigns (19th – Early 20th Century)

Abolition of the Slave Trade

  • Official End of Slave Trade (1836): The Portuguese formally abolished the slave trade, but it continued illegally in Angola for several decades.
  • Transition to Forced Labor: After the decline of the transatlantic slave trade, Angola’s economy shifted towards rubber, cotton, and forced labor, replacing the enslaved labor with exploitative labor practices for export production.

The “Pacification” Campaigns

  • Military Campaigns in the Interior (Late 19th Century): Portuguese forces launched “pacification” campaigns to subdue resistant tribes and consolidate control over Angola’s vast interior.
    • Resistance from Local Tribes: Ethnic groups such as the Ovimbundu and Mbundu resisted these campaigns, leading to prolonged conflicts and disruptions.
  • Berlin Conference (1884 – 1885): European powers formally divided Africa, with Angola designated as a Portuguese colony, sparking more systematic efforts by Portugal to control and exploit the region’s resources fully.

Colonial Administration and Economic Exploitation

  • Introduction of Concessions: Portugal granted concessions to private companies, allowing them to exploit Angola’s resources and labor, leading to extreme exploitation of Angolan workers.
  • Forced Labor and Infrastructure: The colonial administration imposed forced labor practices, building infrastructure such as railways and plantations primarily for the benefit of Portuguese settlers and companies.

Rise of Nationalism and the Struggle for Independence (1940s – 1975)

Growth of Nationalist Sentiments

  • World War II and Post-War Reforms: WWII introduced new ideas of freedom and self-determination, inspiring a wave of anti-colonial sentiment across Angola and Africa.
  • Rise of Nationalist Movements: Inspired by pan-Africanism, Angolan intellectuals and workers began organizing politically, advocating for independence and social justice.

Formation of Independence Movements

  • MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola): Founded in 1956 with Marxist-Leninist ideals, MPLA gained support from urban intellectuals and workers, particularly among the Mbundu people.
  • FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola): Formed in 1962 by members of the Bakongo ethnic group, FNLA sought independence through militant action and received support from Zaire and Western allies.
  • UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola): Founded by Jonas Savimbi in 1966, UNITA represented the Ovimbundu ethnic group and later adopted anti-communist stances, attracting Western and South African support.

War of Independence (1961 – 1974)

  • Baixa de Cassanje Revolt (1961): Angolan workers in the cotton industry staged a major uprising, brutally suppressed by the Portuguese, sparking further resistance.
  • Escalation of Armed Conflict: The MPLA, FNLA, and later UNITA launched guerrilla campaigns against Portuguese forces, gaining support from the Soviet Union, China, and African allies.
  • Portuguese Military Struggles: Portugal struggled to maintain control due to international pressure, growing domestic opposition, and the high economic and human costs of the war.

Carnation Revolution and Independence

  • Carnation Revolution (1974): A peaceful coup in Portugal ended its dictatorship, leading to the decision to grant independence to its African colonies.
  • Independence of Angola (November 11, 1975): Angola gained independence, but the power struggle among MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA plunged the country into civil war.

Civil War and Cold War Intervention (1975 – 2002)

Early Phases of the Civil War

  • MPLA vs. FNLA and UNITA: The MPLA, supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba, declared itself the ruling government in Luanda, while FNLA and UNITA, backed by the United States, South Africa, and Zaire, contested MPLA’s authority.
  • Cuban and South African Involvement: Cuban troops entered Angola to support the MPLA, while South Africa intervened to support UNITA, making Angola a focal point of Cold War tensions in Africa.

Intensification of the Conflict

  • International Involvement and Proxy Warfare: Both superpowers funneled weapons, funding, and advisors to their respective Angolan allies, exacerbating the conflict and causing massive displacement and destruction.
  • Economic Collapse and Humanitarian Crisis: The civil war devastated Angola’s economy, particularly its agricultural sector, causing widespread famine, displacement, and human suffering.

Shifting Alliances and Attempts at Peace

  • Lusaka Protocol (1994): A peace agreement was signed between the MPLA and UNITA, establishing a framework for peace and UN-supervised disarmament, but clashes continued.
  • Renewed Fighting (Late 1990s): Peace efforts failed as UNITA resumed fighting, citing alleged electoral manipulation by the MPLA government, leading to further conflict and instability.

Death of Jonas Savimbi and End of the Civil War

  • Death of Jonas Savimbi (2002): UNITA’s leader, Jonas Savimbi, was killed in combat, weakening the movement and bringing an end to organized resistance.
  • Peace Accord (2002): With Savimbi’s death, a formal peace agreement was reached, ending 27 years of civil war and allowing Angola to focus on reconstruction and stability.

Post-War Angola and Economic Reconstruction (2002 – Present)

Reconstruction and Economic Growth

  • Oil Boom and Economic Growth: Post-war Angola saw rapid economic growth due to its vast oil reserves, attracting foreign investment, particularly from China.
  • Infrastructure Development: Revenues from oil were used to rebuild infrastructure, including roads, schools, and hospitals, though corruption limited the benefits for much of the population.
  • Chinese Investment: China became a significant partner in Angola’s reconstruction, offering loans and assistance in exchange for oil, symbolizing Angola’s growing global economic ties.

Political Challenges and Continuity

  • Dominance of MPLA: The MPLA maintained political control, led by President José Eduardo dos Santos, who ruled Angola for 38 years until his resignation in 2017.
  • Corruption and Economic Inequality: Despite economic growth, Angola struggled with corruption, with much of the wealth concentrated among the political elite.
  • Limited Political Freedoms: The government faced criticism for restricting political opposition, freedom of press, and civil rights.

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